The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) is partnering with Bitt to roll out its eNaira retail CBDC later this year. Project Giant, as the Nigerian CBDC pilot is known, has been a long process that started with the Bank’s decision to digitize the Naira in 2017. Bitt was previously key to the development and launch of the CBDC pilot of the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB) in April 2021.
“Whether a stablecoin needs dollar reserves depends on its actual or potential use in the conventional payments system. A stablecoin used only within the crypto ecosystem wouldn’t need 100% dollar reserves. It would only need sufficient dollar liquidity to maintain its peg – and if exchanges are compliant and redemptions restricted, that might not be very much. However, stablecoins could replace conventional rails for international payments, potentially making them faster, cheaper and available 24/7. Stablecoins used for this purpose would need to be fully exchangeable for U.S. dollars or other fiat currencies on demand 24/7, and would therefore either need 100% dollar reserves or access to central bank liquidity. [Hence,] rather than wasting time and energy trying to regulate crypto-only stablecoins as if they are banks or money market funds, regulators should concentrate on ensuring that stablecoins that are, or show signs of becoming, payment media within the conventional financial system have 100% reserves and/or are licensed banks.”
One of the first big retail central bank digital currency (CBDC) design decisions is the operating model. In a single-tier model the central bank performs all the tasks involved, from issuing and distributing the CBDC to running user wallets. In multi-tier models, the central bank issues and redeems CBDC, but distribution and payment services would be delegated to the private sector. Which model to adopt will depend on country-specific circumstances, such as financial sector breadth and depth, financial integrity standards compliance, and financial market infrastructure availability and supervision capacity.
Single-tier models
In a single-tier model, CBDC transactions resemble transactions with commercial banks, except accounts would be held with the central bank. A payer would log in to an account at the central bank through a web or mobile application and request a transfer of funds to a recipient’s account, also at the central bank. The central bank would ensure settlement by updating a master ledger, but only after verification of the payer’s authority to use the account, enough funds, and authenticity of the payee’s account. This mode gives central banks more control over the product design and implementation process.
However, the single-tier model requires the central bank to assume an active role in distribution and payment services that may exceed the scope of its core mandate and capacity. Moreover, central banks would directly compete with existing digital payment service providers creating disintermediation risk. Conceptually, the single-tier model may be appropriate for a country with a well-resourced central bank in which the financial sector is extremely underdeveloped, so that there are no institutions to assume distribution and provision of payment services, as may be the case in some low-income countries.
Multi-tier models
In multi-tier models, the central bank issues CBDC but outsources some or all the work of administering the accounts and payment services. However, CBDC remains the liability of the central bank and thus CBDC holders would not be exposed to default risk of the engaged payment service providers (PSPs).
The multi-tier model has been the overwhelmingly preferred solution in CBDC pilots and the only launch so far. Running currency distribution is not something the central bank is well-suited to perform, requiring customer-facing activities that may be beyond their capacity. Also, the multi-tier model is less disruptive than the single-tier one as financial institutions play their traditional roles in distribution and payment services. In addition, this layered approach facilitates the integration of new types of consumer electronic devices without the need to alter the core of the system, and it supports the ability for third parties to build on top of the core (Shah and others, 2020; Armelius et al, 2021).
Different Flavors of Multi-Tier
Auer and Boehme (2021) discuss two different multi-tier models that differ in terms of the records kept by the central bank. In a “hybrid” architecture the central bank records all retail CBDC holdings and the CBDC is never on PSP balance sheets so that user holdings are not exposed to claims by PSP creditors in the event of PSP insolvency (first panel below).
In an “intermediated” architecture the central bank only runs a ledger of PSP wholesale CBDC holdings (second panel). Central banks may prefer this architecture due to privacy and data security concerns. However, the central bank still must honor CBDC holder claims in the event of PSP insolvency or data breaches, relying on the integrity and availability of the PSP’s records. This will require close supervision to ensure that the wholesale holdings add up to the sum of all retail accounts at all times.
Auer and Böhme (2020) suggest that, in an intermediated architecture, there be a legal framework that keeps user CBDC holdings segregated from PSP balance sheets so that the holdings are not considered part of a failed PSP’s estate available to creditors. They also suggest that the legal framework could give the central bank the power to switch user accounts in bulk from a failed PSP to a functional one. To do this expeditiously, the central bank would likely have to retain a copy of all retail CBDC holdings.
Bank of England (2020) proposes running a hybrid architecture on a “platform” in which the central bank provides a fast, highly secure and resilient technology infrastructure to provide the minimum necessary functionality for CBDC payments (the “core ledger” below). Payment interface providers would connect to it via an application programming interface (API) to provide customer facing CBDC payment services. This model effectively “combines indirect connection to the central bank with direct access to the central bank balance sheet and the CBDCs.” (Prates, 2020)
Overarching Multi-Tier Model Considerations
The multi-tier CBDC ecosystem should be designed to create economic incentives for PSPs to participate in ways that serve central bank interests (making the CBDC broadly available to the public, across regions, etc.). There should be a cost-effective business model for such PSPs with enough revenues from interest spreads, fees, and cross-subsidization, as well as controllable fixed and variable costs. Also, regulations should leave room for enough users to reach critical mass and incentivize network buildup while promoting PSP market competition.
For example, regulations that encourage interoperability of competing payment systems to encourage new entrants and reduce concentration risk should take care not to adversely impact network build-up. (For a new PSP, interoperability across PSPs could diminish the incentive of a startup to innovate since it could lower the value of a privately developed network. It could also restrict competition by excluding certain technical innovations or restricting new business models and reduce the value and increase the costs to PSPs. In addition, interoperability might increase overall risks if an innovative service provider has a higher risk profile.)
The Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) announced the 15 finalists for the global competition to develop retail central bank digital currency (CBDC) solutions (Global CBDC Challenge). The finalists will progress to the Acceleration Phase before they pitch their solutions to a panel of judges and an international audience at this year’s Singapore FinTech Festival. The Challenge attracted over 300 submissions from more than 50 countries. Participants were invited to address 12 problem statements relating to (i) CBDC instrument; (ii) CBDC distribution; and (iii) CBDC infrastructure; covering topics such as inclusivity, interoperability and programmability. The proposals from the finalists sought to address multiple problem statements through a variety of technology approaches including hardware wallets, digital identity and asset tokenization solutions.
A consortium of leading decentralized finance (DeFi) protocols will together provide up to $100 million in educational initiatives, grants, and incentives in an effort to educate individuals globally about decentralized finance. The DeFi for the People initiative — built on the Celo ecosystem — aims to utilize the decentralized nature of crypto and blockchain to provide finance to the world’s 6 billion mobile phone users. “Celo is an open-source blockchain ecosystem consisting of individuals and organizations who work alongside each other to promote global financial inclusion. Their conscious arm, Alliance for Prosperity, includes 150 partners such as Deutsche Telekom, Coinbase and Andreessen Horowitz.”
The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) reportedly has sent a presentation to Nigerian banks about the e-Naira central bank digital currency (CBDC) project. The CBDC, which will not be renumerated, will run on a Hyperledger Fabric DLT platform, and users will access it with the CBN’s three-tier Speed Wallet. The first tier, which does not require users to have a bank account, will require users to register their phone number validated as a National Identity Number (NIN) and has a daily send/receive limit of N50,000 (about $120) and a maximum balance of N300,000 ($730). Tier Two wallet users, who must have a bank account and Bank Verification Number (BVN), will be able to send and receive N200,000 ($485) and hold up to N500,000 ($1,200). The third Tier allows daily transactions up to N1,000,000 ($2,430) with holdings limited to N5,000,000 ($12,150).
Amazon is testing Affirm’s are testing “buy now, pay later” (BNPL) payment platform firm with select customers, and plans to make Affirm more broadly available to its customers in coming months. On the platform, customers are told the total cost of the transaction up front and have the option to split the total cost of purchases of US$50 or more into simple monthly payments at checkout. There are no late or transaction fees.
Last week, Ethereum’s blockchain has split in two from a bug in a previous version of the chain’s main node software. The software, known as Geth, makes up roughly 75% of Ethereum nodes and as much as 73% of Geth nodes have yet to update to the new version to fix the bug. That meant that around 50% of Ethereum nodes were running a split-off chain with out-of-date and bugged software that could allow double-spends. However, it had little impact as most of the miners had already switched to updated versions of Ethereum software. It seems that it was mostly non-mining nodes that had yet to make the switch to the new version of the software.
This paper by the Bank of Canada’s Scott Hendry and Yu Zhu confirms the validity of central bank concerns that wide adoption of a private digital currency and decline in the use of central bank money may undermine monetary sovereignty. The analysis is based on a theoretical model in which fiat money and the digital currency differ in the types of transactions that they can serve, with the latter dominating in online transactions. Although the central bank wants to maintain the value of the fiat money by keeping low inflation in case households want to use the fiat money for transactions, a welfare-maximizing central bank would also want to encourage households to use e-money for transactions where e-money has an advantage. This can be achieved by raising inflation of fiat money since it is a substitute for e-money, and the incentive to raise inflation would dominate if the usage of fiat money was sufficiently low. However, if the use of the central bank money becomes sufficiently low, this leads to high inflation and low welfare. The paper concludes that, to defend monetary sovereignty, the central bank should maintain or expand the use of central bank money, for example, by offering a central bank digital currency (CBDC) designed to be a perfect substitute for the private e-money.
Wyoming-based Avanti Financial Group has filed an application to become a Member Bank of the Federal Reserve. This membership application is different from Avanti’s prior application to obtain payment system access from the Federal Reserve via a master account, which Avanti filed in October 2020 and which remains pending. Avanti meets the requirements for both membership and payment system access, and with this latest application, Avanti becomes the first digital asset bank to seek formal regulation by the Federal Reserve in addition to its existing regulator, the Wyoming Division of Banking.
Banco de Reserva del Perú has apparently been studying CBDC since at least 2019. “Central banks must continue with the analysis, both conceptual and technological, in order to be prepared for eventual changes in the conditions they face regarding the conduct of monetary policy in the future. It is essential to continue with the study and analysis of the potential effects of the issuance of a digital currency, as well as learning from the experiences of other countries on the subject.” I’ve added Peru to my tabulation of retail CBDC explorers.
A Cuban government resolution published in the Official Gazette said the central bank can authorize use of cryptocurrencies “for reasons of socioeconomic interest”, set rules for such currencies and determine how to license providers of related services within Cuba.
Controversial new US crypto-asset tax requirements are likely to become law through the bipartisan infrastructure bill. The crypto-asset community rallied to fix the language, but the House voted to proceed with the bill as is, moving forward without any new amendments or opportunities to change it. The deal made to move the bill through the House of Representatives prohibits any new amendments from being considered unless the House approves a new rule that would allow them.
According to Coindesk, the new requirements come from the U.S. Treasury Department looking to clarify its authority to impose tax-reporting requirements on crypto exchanges and certain decentralized exchanges (DEXs). Specifically, Treasury appears to want to capture DEXs that have intermediaries as part of their platforms, rather than true peer-to-peer projects.
The UK Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) said it is “not capable” of properly supervising Binance despite the “significant risk” posed by the cryptocurrency exchange’s leveraged products. Binance’s UK affiliate had “failed to” respond to some of its basic queries, making it impossible to oversee the sprawling group. The FCA said that Binance’s “complex and high-risk financial products” posed “a significant risk to consumers”, and that one of Binance’s London-based affiliates had supplied insufficient information on the wider group’s products offered in the UK, as well as other business details.
The Thai Securities and Exchange Commission is seeking public comments on additional amendments to the regulations on custody of clients’ assets in digital asset businesses, which includes keeping custody of fiat money and seeking benefits from the clients’ assets for the clients’ interest. They look to prohibit crypto companies from using investor assets for the “benefit of another client or other persons,” or seeking benefits from both investors’ fiat money and digital assets, including digital lending to other persons. “Seeking benefits from clients’ fiat money shall be prohibited except in the form of deposit with commercial banks”.
This IMF paper reviews how central banks have been reacting to the challenges posed by fintech to the legal foundations of their governance. It finds that fintech calls for reconsidering the adequacy of the legal formulation of currency issuance and payment systems functions and powers. Fintech may impact the functional autonomy for some key central bank functions. For example, the role claimed by governments in designing CBDC will be an important issue to consider; the legal framework will need to carefully delineate the respective roles and responsibilities between the government and the central bank. The authors suggest that central bank law reform must be sufficiently broad to achieve appropriate levels of “agility” to provide a “future-proof ” legal framework. For instance, legislation (and by extension the legal framework to which the central bank is subject) should to the maximum extent possible be technology-neutral.
Facebook is launching a new birthday gifting option using Facebook Pay. Messenger users in the U.S. can send and receive cash gifts directly through the chat platform. Gift recipients will be notified via Messenger and on Facebook with their virtually wrapped gift message and balloons. Once users confirm their Facebook Pay information, the cash gift will be instantaneously deposited into the recipient’s bank account.
Credit losses at Klarna, the Swedish “buy now, pay later” company, more than doubled in Q2 2021. Klarna said that credit losses tended to increase when it entered new markets such as recent launches in New Zealand, France, and Spain. It added Poland last week. Klarna has faced controversy in some countries as critics have argued it encourages younger people to spend money that they do not necessarily have and then pay back in instalments. Klarna positions itself as an alternative to credit cards and their high rates that drive economic inequalities, with those who can afford to pay off their balances each month reap rewards through loyalty schemes while those who can’t afford to simply get into more debt.
Paxos is rebranding its stablecoin from Paxos Standard (PAX) to Pax Dollar (USDP) so it is more easily identifiable as a US dollar-backed token. The updated USDP smart contract will go live on August 31, 2021. PAX has always maintained reserves that are 100% cash or cash equivalents, which for Paxos means short-term Treasury bills.
“A recent report by EIU (The Economist Intelligence Unit) found that India is leading the real-time payments market, followed by China and South Korea. In terms of the mobile payment market, China leads instead, followed by India. Following the success of India’s UPI, several countries are currently in the process of building instant real-time payment platforms. Brazil, for example, debuted its fast payment Platform, Pix, in late 2020. In early 2021, Saudi Arabia unveiled its new version of the instant-payments platform, Sarie, which facilitates a quick transfer of funds using various methods of identification, including mobile numbers and email addresses.”
El Salvador’s government is rolling out 200 ATMs and preparing 50 bank branches across the nation to allow residents to exchange crypto for fiat easily, in preparation for adopting Bitcoin (BTC) as legal tender. Those not interested in using BTC will be able to exchange the BTC for cash at any of those locations. The U.S. dollar will continue to be in circulation. El Salvador has also created the Chivo crypto wallet that would be compatible with the new ATMs and would be interoperable with any existing crypto wallet.
The Poly Network crypto thieves released the last key to the remaining funds of 28,953 Ether and 1,032 Wrapped Bitcoin tokens, worth approximately $141 million, on Monday. The company is in the process of returning full asset control to users, although $33 million worth of Tether tokens frozen post-attack are still immovable.
Deloitte’s 2021 Global Blockchain Survey found that 76% of executives globally think digital assets will be a “strong alternative to or replacement for” fiat in the next five to 10 years. 78% of respondents said that digital assets will be important to their industry in the coming 24 months. The survey of 1,280 senior executives and practitioners was conducted March 24 through April 10. One-third of respondents were based in the U.S., with the rest in Brazil, China, Germany, Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, South Africa, the UAE and the U.K.
The Centre Consortium announced that USD Coin (USDC) stablecoins will only be backed by cash and U.S. Treasury Bills. Centre oversees which entities are allowed to issue the stablecoin and use its API. In July, its parent company Circle, which issues the USDC, revealed that USDC was only 61% backed by cash (including money market funds) and cash equivalents (high-quality short-term fixed income securities). The July attestation report showed that reserves included Yankee Certificate of Deposit (13%), commercial paper (9%), corporate bonds (5%) and municipal bonds and U.S. Agencies (0.2%).
PayPal announced plans to enable UK customers buy, hold, and sell Bitcoin, Ethereum, Litecoin and Bitcoin Cash, starting this week. By accessing their PayPal account via the website or the mobile app, they can view real-time crypto prices, access educational content to help answer commonly asked questions, and learn more about cryptocurrencies, including the opportunities and risks.
